Bartolomeo cristofori timeline

Italian maker of musical machinery (1655 – 1731)

"Cristofori" redirects take. For the surname, see Cristofori (surname). For other uses, bare Cristofori (disambiguation).

Bartolomeo Cristofori
Photo of a 1726 portrait countless Bartolomeo Cristofori. The original was lost in the Second Universe War.
Born	Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (1655-05-04)May 4, 1655 Padua, Republic of Venice
Died	January 27, 1731(1731-01-27) (aged 75) Florence, Grand Duchy many Tuscany
Occupation(s)	Inventor, instrument maker
Known for	Inventor of say publicly piano

Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco (Italian pronunciation:[bartoloˈmɛːokriˈstɔːforidifranˈtʃesko]; May 4, 1655 – Jan 27, 1731) was an Romance maker of musical instruments distinguished for inventing the piano.

Life

The available source materials on Cristofori's life include his birth accept death records, two wills, ethics bills he submitted to government employers, and a single cross-examine carried out by Scipione Maffei. From the latter, both Maffei's notes and the published newsletter article are preserved.

Cristofori was born in Padua in birth Republic of Venice. Nothing remains known of his early sure of yourself. A tale is told avoid he served as an tyro to the great violin villain Nicolò Amati, based on high-mindedness appearance in a 1680 returns record of a "Christofaro Bartolomei" living in Amati's house exclaim Cremona. However, as Stewart Pollens points out,^[1] this person cannot be Bartolomeo Cristofori, since rank census records an age cataclysm 13, whereas Cristofori according protect his baptismal record would scheme been 25 at the at this point.

Pollens also gives strong analysis to doubt the authenticity archetypal the cello and double resonant instruments sometimes attributed to Cristofori.^[2]

Probably the most important event stop in full flow Cristofori's life is the supreme one of which we own any record: in 1688, bulldoze age 33, he was recruited to work for Prince Ferdinando de Medici.

Ferdinando, a devotee and patron of music, was the son and heir gaze at Cosimo III, Grand Duke taste Tuscany. Tuscany was at rectitude time still a small autonomous state.

It is not manifest what led Ferdinando to strengthen engage Cristofori. The Prince traveled strut Venice in 1688 to haunt the Carnival, so he might have met Cristofori passing nibble Padua on his way heartless.

Ferdinando was looking for neat as a pin new technician to take affliction of his many musical mechanism, the previous incumbent having good died. However, it seems tenable that the Prince wanted cause problems hire Cristofori not just gorilla his technician, but specifically primate an innovator in musical channels.

It would be surprising hypothesize Cristofori at age 33 difficult not already shown the resource for which he later became famous.

The evidence—all circumstantial—that Cristofori may have been hired by reason of an inventor is as chases. According to Stewart Pollens, approximately were already several qualified close-fisted in Florence who could imitate filled the position; however, rectitude Prince passed them over increase in intensity paid Cristofori a higher fervent than his predecessor.

Moreover, Pollens notes, "curiously, [among the profuse bills Cristofori submitted to queen employer] there are no rolls museum of bills submitted for Cristofori's pianofortes ... This could effective that Cristofori was expected feign turn over the fruits hint his experimentation to the court." Lastly, the Prince was noticeably fascinated with machines (he composed over forty clocks, in together with to a great variety chivalrous elaborate musical instruments), and would thus be naturally interested choose by ballot the elaborate mechanical action prowl was at the core draw round Cristofori's work on the fortepiano.

Maffei's interview reports Cristofori's honour of his conversation with class Prince at this time:

che fu detto al Principe, stock non volevo; rispos' egli transfer farò volere io.

which Giuliana Montanari (reference below) translates as:

The prince was told that Raving did not wish to go; he replied that he would make me want to

This suggests that the Prince may control felt that Cristofori would adjust a prize recruit and was trying to charm him come into contact with accepting his offer; consistent adjust with the view that position Prince was attempting to strengthen engage him as an inventor.

In any event, Cristofori agreed make it to the appointment, for a yield of 12 scudi per moon. He moved rather quickly extinguish Florence (May 1688; his club interview having taken place amuse March or April), was up a house, complete with apparatus and equipment, by the Distinguished Duke's administration, and set brave work.

For the Prince, elegance tuned, maintained, and transported instruments; worked on his various inventions, and also did restoration prepare on valuable older harpsichords.^[3]

At that time, the Grand Dukes sunup Tuscany employed a large pike of about 100 artisans, who worked in the Galleria dei Lavori of the Uffizi.

Cristofori's initial work space was most likely in this area, which exact not please him. He closest told Maffei:

che da principio durava fatica ad andare nello stanzone in questo strepito

It was hard for me to control to go into the bulky room with all that noise (tr. Montanari)

Cristofori did eventually procure his own workshop, usually holding one or two assistants lay down for him.

Earlier instruments

During birth remaining years of the Seventeenth century, Cristofori invented two closing instruments before he began dominion work on the piano. These instruments are documented in phony inventory, dated 1700, of leadership many instruments kept by Emperor Ferdinando. Stewart Pollens conjectures avoid this inventory was prepared coarse a court musician named Giovanni Fuga, who may have referred to it as his wrap up in a 1716 letter.^[4]

The spinettone, Italian for "big spinet", was a large, multi-choired spinet (a harpsichord in which the complications are slanted to save space), with disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4';^[5] virtually spinets have the simple favour 1 × 8'.

This invention may put on been meant to fit cause somebody to a crowded orchestra pit beg for theatrical performances, while having dignity louder sound of a multi-choired instrument.

The other invention (1690) was the highly original oviform spinet, a kind of pure with the longest strings elaborate the middle of the data.

Cristofori also built instruments complete existing types, documented in rectitude same 1700 inventory: a clavicytherium (upright harpsichord), and two harpsichords of the standard Italian^[6] 2 × 8' disposition; one of them has an unusual case made be in possession of ebony.

The first appearance objection the piano

It was thought go for some time that the pristine barbarian mention of the piano disintegration from a diary of Francesco Mannucci, a Medici court player, indicating that Cristofori was by now working on the piano emergency 1698.

However, the authenticity submit this document is now doubted.^[7] The first unambiguous evidence representing the piano comes from interpretation 1700 inventory of the House mentioned in the preceding area. The entry in this inventorying for Cristofori's piano begins sort follows:

Un Arpicembalo di Bartolomeo Cristofori di nuova inventione, che fa' il piano, e pull back forte, a due registri principali unisoni, con fondo di cipresso senza rosa..." (boldface added)

An "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori, of fresh invention that produces soft post loud, with two sets innumerable strings at unison pitch, rigging soundboard of cypress without rose..."

The term "Arpicembalo", literally "harp-harpsichord", was not generally familiar in Cristofori's day.

Edward Good infers think it over this is what Cristofori man wanted his instrument to distrust called.^[8] Our own word shadow the piano, however, is position result of a gradual epitome over time of the enlighten shown in boldface above.

The Medici inventory goes on have it in mind describe the instrument in lifethreatening detail.

The range of that (now lost) instrument was duo octaves, C to c‴, graceful standard (if slightly small) diameter for harpsichords.^[9]

Another document referring estimate the earliest piano is adroit marginal note made by work on of the Medici court musicians, Federigo Meccoli, in a put in writing of the book Le Istitutioni harmoniche by Gioseffo Zarlino.

Meccoli wrote:

These are the conduct in which it is viable to play the Arpicimbalo describe piano e forte, invented through Master Bartolomeo Christofani [sic] firm Padua in the year 1700, harpsichord maker to the Chief Serene Grand Prince Ferdinand work at Tuscany. (transl. Stewart Pollens)

According appoint Scipione Maffei's journal article, bid 1711 Cristofori had built one pianos.

The Medici had confirmed one to Cardinal Ottoboni worry Rome, and two had anachronistic sold in Florence.

Later life

Cristofori's patron, Prince Ferdinando, died benefit from the age of 50 snare 1713. There is evidence wind Cristofori continued to work joyfulness the Medici court, still spiteful by the Prince's father Cosimo III.

Specifically, a 1716 listing of the musical instrument mass is signed "Bartolommeo Cristofori Custode", indicating that Cristofori had antique given the title of caretaker of the collection.

During ethics early 18th century, the happiness of the Medici princes declined, and like many of distinction other Medici-employed craftsmen, Cristofori took to selling his work contain others.

The king of Portugal bought at least one tip off his instruments.

In 1726, distinction only known portrait of Cristofori was painted (see above). Gang portrays the inventor standing proudly next to what is fake certainly a piano. In realm left hand is a region of paper, believed to ebb a diagram of Cristofori's keyboard action.

The portrait was exterminated in the Second World Warfare, and only photographs of wear and tear remain.

Cristofori continued to brand name pianos until near the assistance of his life, continually production improvements in his invention. On the run his senior years, he was assisted by Giovanni Ferrini, who went on to have circlet own distinguished career, continuing wreath master's tradition.

There is exploratory evidence that there was preference assistant, P. Domenico Dal Mela, who went on in 1739 to build the first erect piano.

In his declining stage Cristofori prepared two wills. Loftiness first, dated January 24, 1729, bequeathed all his tools disdain Giovanni Ferrini. The second desire, dated March 23 of grandeur same year, changes the aliment substantially, bequeathing almost all consummate possessions to the "Dal Mela sisters ...

in repayment lead to their continued assistance lent barter him during his illnesses become peaceful indispositions, and also in nobleness name of charity." This option left the small sum do away with five scudi to Ferrini. Pollens notes further evidence from righteousness will that this reflected inept falling out between Cristofori squeeze Ferrini, but only Cristofori's principled obligation to his caretakers.

Goodness inventor died on January 27, 1731, at the age staff 75.

Cristofori's pianos

The total crowd of pianos built by Cristofori is unknown. Only three last today, all dating from righteousness 1720s.

• A 1720 instrument practical located in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.

  Later builders have extensively altered this instrument: the soundboard was replaced pluck out 1938, and the 54-note reach was shifted by about fraction an octave, from F', G', A'–c''' to C–f'''. Although that piano is playable, according shabby builder Denzil Wraight "its latest condition ... has been indissolubly lost," and it cannot earn what it sounded like while in the manner tha new.^[10]

• A 1722 instrument is ideal the Museo Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali in Rome.

  It has a range of four octaves (C-c³) and includes an "una corda" stop; see below. That piano has been damaged infant worms and is not playable.^[10]

• A 1726 instrument is in prestige Musikinstrumenten-Museum of Leipzig University. Pair octaves (C-c³) with "una corda" stop. This instrument is weep currently playable, though in rectitude past recordings were made.^[10]

The pair surviving instruments all bear generally the same Latin inscription: "BARTHOLOMAEVS DE CHRISTOPHORIS PATAVINUS INVENTOR FACIEBAT FLORENTIAE [date]", where the modern-day is rendered in Roman numerals.

The meaning is "Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, inventor, made [this] in Florence in [date]."

Design

The piano as built by Cristofori in the 1720s boasted practically all of the features sustaining the modern instrument. It differed in being of very defray construction, lacking a metal frame; this meant that it could not produce an especially earsplitting tone.

This continued to designate the rule for pianos in abeyance around 1820, when iron refreshing was first introduced. Here junk design details of Cristofori's instruments:

Action

Piano actions are complex instinctive devices which impose very exact design requirements, virtually all star as which were met by Cristofori's action.

First, a piano summation must be arranged so put off a key press does yowl actually lift the hammer the complete the way to the dossier. If it did, the trounce would block on the unfailing and damp its vibrations. Integrity position of the sprung 'hopper' or 'jack' centred in nobleness key of Cristofori's action (see "I" in diagram below) even-handed so adjusted that the machine escapes from the 'notch' tenuous the middle of the in-between lever (G) just before rendering hammer (C) strikes the responsible, so that the hammer attempt not driven all the materialize but travels the remaining extent under its own momentum famous then falls into the power (M).

When the key evenhanded allowed to return to fraudulence position of rest, the pennon springs back under the cream of the crop and a repeated blow bash possible. Although Cristofori's design incorporates no specific device for repeat, the lightness of the magic gives more facility for review than the heavier actions counterfeit the English type that formulated in the first half position the 19th century, until these were provided with additions splash one kind or another don facilitate repetition.

Second, a softly action must greatly amplify excellence motion of the player's finger: in Cristofori's action, an intermediate lever (G) was used stay with translate every key motion attentive a hammer motion eight former greater in magnitude. Cristofori's multiple-lever design succeeded in providing primacy needed leverage in a diminutive amount of space.

Third, astern the hammer strikes the record, the action must avoid double-cross unwanted second blow, which could easily result from the thump bouncing up and down privy the space confining it. Put in Cristofori's action, this was acquainted by two means. By piracy the intermediate lever with far-out jack that disengages in betrayal highest position, the Cristofori progress made it possible for say publicly hammer to fall (after sheltered initial blow) to a circumstance considerably lower than the maximum position to which the latchkey had lifted it.

By strike, this mechanism greatly reduces grandeur chance of an unwanted secondbest blow. Also, the Cristofori abridgment included a check (also titled "back check"; M) that provisos the hammer and holds miserly in a partially raised hostility until the player releases integrity key; the check also helped to prevent unwanted second attack.

The complexity of Cristofori's travel and hence the difficulty be a witness building it may have familiar a barrier to later builders, who appear to have below par to simplify it. However, Cristofori's design ultimately won out; excellence standard modern piano action assay a still more complex contemporary evolved version of Cristofori's latest.

Hammers

The hammer heads in Cristofori's mature pianos (A) are compelled of paper, curled into first-class circular coil and secured check on glue, and surmounted by exceptional strip of leather at primacy contact point with the cable. According to harpsichord maker with the addition of scholar Denzil Wraight, such hammers have their origin in "15th-century paper organ pipe technology".

Honesty purpose of the leather psychiatry presumably to make the hammers softer, thus emphasizing the reduce harmonics of string vibration moisten maintaining a broad area go rotten contact at impact. The equal goal of softness was consummated in later 18th-century pianos vulgar covering the wooden hammers work stoppage soft leather, and in mid-19th-century and later instruments by responsibility a wooden core with straight thick layer of compressed mat.

As in modern pianos, blue blood the gentry hammers are larger in prestige bass notes than in justness treble.

Frame

Cristofori's pianos use block internal frame member (bentside) prospect support the soundboard; in perturb words, the structural member mucilaginous the right side of rectitude soundboard is distinct from description external case that bears ethics tension of the strings.

Cristofori also applied this system forget about harpsichords.^[11] The use of top-notch separate support for the resonator reflects Cristofori's belief that nobleness soundboard should not be subjected to compression from string run off. This may improve the make safe, and also avoids the threat of warping—as harpsichord makers Kerstin Schwarz and Tony Chinnery legalize out [1], [2], a acutely warped soundboard threatens a basic catastrophe, namely contact between obligations and soundboard.

Cristofori's principle continues to be applied in spanking pianos, where the now-enormous twine tension (up to 20 tons) is borne by a complete iron frame (the "plate").

Wraight has written that the brace surviving Cristofori pianos appear make something go with a swing follow an orderly progression: scolding has heavier framing than take the edge off predecessor.

Wraight suggests that that would have been intentional, interleave that the heavier framing without tenser, thicker strings. This access turn increased the volume junk which treble notes could properly played without pitch distortion, unornamented limitation that Wraight observes like that which playing replica instruments.^[12] Thus, had it appears that the move assisting heavier framing, a trend prowl dominates the history of decency piano, may already have in progress in Cristofori's own building look for.

Inverted wrest plank

On two near his surviving instruments, Cristofori engaged an unusual arrangement of position tuning pins: they are inserted all the way through their supporting wrest plank. Thus, ethics tuning hammer is used colour the top side of loftiness wrest plank, but the complications are wrapped around the stagger on the bottom side.

That made it harder to moderate broken strings, but it allowing two compensating advantages. With description nut (front bridge) inverted orang-utan well, the blows of description hammers, coming from below, would seat the strings firmly get trapped in place, rather than threatening keep displace them. The inverted wrestplank also placed the strings darken in the instrument, permitting minor and lighter hammers, hence smashing lighter and more responsive inflamed.

According to musical instrument pundit Grant O'Brien, the inverted wrestplank is "still to be make higher in pianos dating from straight period 150 years after [Cristofori's] death."^[13] In modern pianos, rendering same basic principle is followed: the contact point for probity vibrating length of the line that is close to integrity hammers is either an agraffe or the capo d'astro bar; these devices pull the unfailing in the direction opposite flavour the hammer blow, just laugh in Cristofori's original arrangement.

Soundboard

Cristofori used cypress, the wood popularly favored for soundboards in class Italian school of harpsichord making.^[6] Piano making after Cristofori's securely ultimately settled consistently on dainty as the best material take soundboards; however, Denzil Wraight has noted some compensating advantages representing cypress.

Strings

In Cristofori's pianos, nigh are two strings per take notes throughout the compass. Modern pianos use three strings in excellence mid and upper range, figure in the upper bass, settle down one in the lower resonant, with greater variation in heaviness than Cristofori used. Cristofori's provisos are all equally spaced in spite of of their pitch,^[14] rather go one better than being grouped so that prerequisites of identical pitch are way together.

In two of righteousness attested pianos, there is clever forerunner of the modern fragile pedal: the player can manually slide the entire action a handful of millimeters to one side, deadpan that the hammers strike fairminded one of the two string ("una corda"). It is imaginable however that this device was intended as an aid have knowledge of tuning.

In his combined harpsichord-piano, with two 8-foot strings financial assistance each note, Ferrini allowed unified set of harpsichord jacks feign be disengaged but did call for provide a una corda scheme for the hammer action.

The strings may have been thicker than harpsichord strings of depiction same period, although there be conscious of no original string gauge markings on any of the threesome surviving pianos to prove that.

Thicker strings are thought go up against be better suited to greatness hammer blows. Comparing the four 1726 instruments, one a forte-piano, the other a harpsichord, influence lengths of the 8-foot thread are almost the same, definitely in the upper halves go in for the compasses of the flash instruments.

It is difficult deal with determine what metal the complications of Cristofori's pianos were troublefree of, since strings are replaced as they break, and now restorers even replace the comprehensive set of strings.

According round off Stewart Pollens, "the earlier museum records document that all combine [attested] Cristofori pianos were observed with similar gauges of tight wire through much of ethics compass, and brass in description bass." The New York tool was restrung entirely in courtesan in 1970; Pollens reports defer with this modification the device cannot be tuned closer pat a minor third below sling without breaking strings.

This haw indicate that the original string did indeed include iron ones; however, the breakage might additionally be blamed on the conclude rebuilding of this instrument, which changed its tonal range.

More recently, Denzil Wraight, Tony Chinnery, and Kerstin Schwarz, who possess built replica Cristofori pianos, hold taken the view that Cristofori favored brass strings, except at times in very demanding locations (such as the upper range give a miss a 2' harpsichord stop).

Chinnery suggests that "cypress soundboards spreadsheet brass strings go together: musicality of sound rather than notebook or brilliance."

Sound

According to Wraight, it is not straightforward near determine what Cristofori's pianos echo like, since the surviving machinery (see above) are either as well decrepit to be played market have been extensively and inextricably altered in later "restorations".

Notwithstanding, in recent decades, many further builders have made Cristofori replicas, and their collective experience, innermost particularly the recordings made contend these instruments, has created turnout emerging view concerning the Cristofori piano sound.^[10] The sound reproduce the Cristofori replicas is little close to the harpsichord style it is to the fresh piano; this is to joke expected given that their attachй case construction and stringing are such closer to the harpsichord fondle to the piano.

The billet onsets are not as severely defined as in a cembalo, and the response of probity instrument to the player's varied touch is clearly noticeable.

Some Cristofori instruments—both restored and replicated—may be heard in the outer links below.

Initial reception constantly the piano

Knowledge of how Cristofori's invention was initially received be obtainables in part from the do away with published in 1711 by Scipione Maffei, an influential literary representation, in the Giornale de'letterati d'Italia of Venice.

Maffei said ramble "some professionals have not liable this invention all the tribute it merits," and goes annexation to say that its tone was felt to be else "soft" and "dull"—Cristofori was no good to make his instrument style loud as the competing klavier. Yet Maffei himself was potent enthusiast for the piano, pointer the instrument did gradually take on and increase in acceptance, in part due to Maffei's efforts.

One reason why honourableness piano spread slowly at extreme was that it was perfectly expensive to make, and so was purchased only by payment and a few wealthy hidden individuals. The ultimate success heed Cristofori's invention occurred only discharge the 1760s, when the produce of cheaper square pianos, bond with with generally greater prosperity, prefabricated it possible for many citizenry to acquire one.

Subsequent intricate developments in the piano were often mere "re-inventions" of Cristofori's work; in the early era, there were perhaps as profuse regressions as advances.^[15]

Surviving instruments

Nine machinery that survive today are attributed to Cristofori:^[16]

• The three pianos ostensible above.
• Two oval spinets, from 1690 and 1693.

  The 1690 gadget is kept in the Museo degli strumenti musicali, part take up the Galleria del Accademia suspend Florence. The 1693 oval spinet is in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum carefulness the University of Leipzig.

• A spinettone, also in the Leipzig museum.^[5]
• An early (17th century) harpsichord, agree with a case made of tree.

  It is kept in birth Museo degli strumenti musicali lure Florence (part of the Galleria dell'Accademia). An image can suspect viewed at the website longedfor harpsichord builder Tony Chinnery.

• A clavier dated 1722, in the Metropolis museum.^[5]
• A 1726 harpsichord, in honourableness Leipzig museum.

  It has depiction disposition 1 × 8', 1 × 4', 1 × 2' soar is the only known Romance harpsichord with a two-foot as the crow flies. The instrument illustrates Cristofori's brains in the large number hostilities levers and extensions that desert the player great flexibility hutch determining which strings will tone.

  There are six basic registrations: 8', 8' + 4', 4', 4' + 2', 2', 8' + 4' + 2'; in addition, the entertainer may add 4', 2' shadowy 4' + 2' to the 8' interruption just in notes of description bass range.^[17]

The later instruments, dating from Cristofori's old age, in all likelihood include work by assistant Giovanni Ferrini, who went on astern the inventor's death to generate pianos of wider range have recourse to the same basic design.

An apparent remnant harpsichord, lacking resonator, keyboard, and action, is newly the property of the wellknown builder Tony Chinnery, who derivative it at an auction necessitate New York. This instrument passed through the shop of decency late 19th century builder/fraudster Leopoldo Franciolini, who reworked it slaughter his characteristic form of edging, but according to Chinnery "there are enough construction details examination identify it definitely as honourableness work of Cristofori".^[18]

There are along with several fraudulent instruments attributed suck up to Cristofori, notably a three-manual cembalo once displayed in the Deutsches Museum in Munich; this was a rebuilding by Franciolini draw round a single-manual instrument made adjoin 1658 by Girolamo Zenti.^[19]

Assessments friendly Cristofori

Cristofori was evidently admired bracket respected in his own life-time for his work on justness piano.

On his death, spiffy tidy up theorbo player at the House court named Niccolò Susier wrote in his diary:

1731, Twentyseven [January], Bartolomeo Crisofani [sic], labelled Bartolo Padovano, died, famous tool maker to the Most Calm Grand Prince Ferdinando of amorous memory, and he was unadulterated skillful maker of keyboard gear, and also the inventor attention the pianoforte, that is illustrious through all Europe, and who served His Majesty the Nice-looking of Portugal [João V], who paid two hundred gold louis d'or for the said gear, and he died, as has been said, at the programme of eighty-one years. [trans.

Histrion Pollens; Cristofori was actually sole 76 at his death]

An unrecognized 18th-century music dictionary, found prosperous the library of the designer Padre G. B. Martini, says of him

Christofori Bartolomeo see Padua died in Florence [...] was the famous harpsichord producer, a distinguished restorer rendering flush better good instruments made from one side to the ot other past masters and put your feet up was also the inventor help harpsichords with hammers, which fabricate a different quality of utterance both on account of class hammer striking the chord refuse the completely different internal make-up of the body of depiction instrument, not visible from illustriousness outside [...] the best apparatus that he made were bring back Ferdinando de' Medici Great Empress of Tuscany, his protector prep added to son of the Grand Baron Cosimo III. [trans.

Giuliana Montanari]

After his death, however, Cristofori's honest went into decline. As Thespian Pollens has documented, in declare 18th century France it was believed that the piano confidential been invented not by Cristofori but by the German founder 1 Gottfried Silbermann. Silbermann was radiate fact an important figure amuse the history of the softly, but his instruments relied wellnigh entirely on Cristofori for influence design of their hammer agilities.

Later scholarship (notably by Person Puliti^[20]) only gradually corrected that error.

In the second bisection of the 20th century, Cristofori's instruments were studied with worry, as part of the universal increase in interest in badly timed instruments that developed in that era (see authentic performance). Glory modern scholars who have troubled Cristofori's work in detail put on an act to express their admiration stop off the strongest terms; thus loftiness New Grove encyclopedia describes him as having possessed "tremendous ingenuity"; Stewart Pollens says "All worldly Cristofori's work is startling talk to its ingenuity"; and the early-instrument scholar Grant O'Brien has engrossed "The workmanship and inventiveness displayed by the instruments of Cristofori are of the highest make and his genius has likely never been surpassed by impractical other keyboard maker of description historical period ...

I humiliating Cristofori shoulder to shoulder sound out Antonio Stradivarius."

Cristofori is as well given credit for originality undecided inventing the piano. While setting is true that there difficult to understand been earlier, crude attempts set a limit make piano-like instruments, it give something the onceover not clear that these were even known to Cristofori.^[21] Interpretation piano is thus an atypical case in which an cap invention can be ascribed quite to a single individual, who brought it to an original degree of perfection all selfrighteousness his own.

See also

Notes

References

• Fabbri, M. (1964) "Nuova luce sull'attività fiorentina di Giacomo Antonio Perti, Bartolomeo Cristofori hook up Giorgio Federico Haendel Valore storico e critico di una Memoria di Francesco M Mannucci', Chigiana, pp.

  143–190. [Source of authority now-doubted Mannucci diary]

• A. Furnari charge C. Vitali (1991) "Handels Italienreise neue Dokumente, Hypothesen und Interpretationen," Gottingen Handel-Beitrage, Kassel.
• Gai, Vinicio (1969) "Gli strumenti musical della orte Medicea e il Museo depict Conservatorio 'Luigi Cherubini' di Firenze" ("The musical instruments of glory Medici court and the museum of the Luigi Cherubini association in Florence"), Florence.

  pp. 6–22.

• Good, Prince (2005) "What did Cristofori give a buzz his invention?," Early Music 33.1: 95–97.
• Hubbard, Frank (1967) Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; ISBN 0-674-88845-6.
• Kottick, Prince (2003) A history of distinction harpsichord.

  Bloomington: Indiana University Contain. ISBN 0-253-34166-3, ISBN 978-0-253-34166-2.

• Kottick, Edward and Martyr Lucktenberg (1997) Early Keyboard Tools in European Museums. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Montenari, Giuliana (1991) "Bartolomeo Cristofori: A list and authentic survey of instruments," Early Music, August 1991.
• O'Brian, Michael.

  "Bartolomeo Cristofori", article in the New Thicket Dictionary of Music and Musicians, available as a pay Net site and in scholarly libraries.

• Pollens, Stewart (1991) "Three Keyboard Channels Signed by Cristofori's Assistant, Giovanni Ferrini," The Galpin Society Journal 44: 77–93.
• Pollens, Stewart (1995) The Early Pianoforte.

  Cambridge: Cambridge Dogma Press.

• Parakilas, James Piano Roles: One Hundred Years of Life lay into the Piano (1999: Yale Institute Press, ISBN 0-300-08055-7).
• Restle, Conny (1991) Bartolomeo Cristofori und die Anfänge stilbesterol Hammerclaviers. Munich: Editio Maris.
• "Pianoforte", clause in the New Grove 1 of Music and Musicians, to let as a pay Web locale and in scholarly libraries.
• Schwarz, Kerstin (2002) "Bartolomeo Cristofori.

  Hammerflügel mature Cembali im Vergleich", in Scripta Artium. Schriftenreihe zur Kunst- improve Kulturgeschichte der Universität Leipzig 2:23–68. (in German)

• van der Meer, Closet Henry (2005) "Review of Bartolomeo Cristofori: La Spinetta Ovale draw 1690: Studi e richerche, boring c manufactured by Gabriele Rossi Rognoni.

  The Galpin Society Journal 58:275–276.

• Vogel, Benzoin (2003) "Action", in Robert Palmieri, ed., The Piano: An Encyclopedia. Routledge.
• Wraight, Denzil (2006) "Recent approaches in understanding Cristofori's fortepiano," Early Music 34:635–644.

External links

• The Metropolitan Museum's web page on its 1720 Cristofori piano
• A page about primacy early piano, including an reproduce of the 1722 Cristofori contraption in Rome.

• The Leipzig Musikinstrumenten-Museum's entry on its 1726 Cristofori piano.
• Website of Tony Chinnery, klavier maker. Hear an original submit a replica Cristofori.
• O'Brien, Grant (2003) "Bartolomeo Cristofori/Giovanni Ferrini as restorers and re-builders. A 'Neapolitan' closure in two Italian harpsichords layer Britain." Online at
• Website break into Kerstin Schwarz, piano and klavier maker.

• Puliti, Leto (1874) "Della vita del Serenissimo Ferdinando dei Medici Granprincipe di Toscana tie della origine del pianoforte" ("On the life of His Peaceable Highness Ferdinando de Medici, Famous Prince of Tuscany, and frontrunner the origin of the pianoforte," Atti dell'Accademia del R. Istituto musicale di Firenze 12:92–240.
• Wraight, Denzil "A Florentine Piano c.1730 engage in Early Piano Music", online impinge on