Zenobia queen of palmyra biography books

3rd-century queen of the Palmyrene Corporation in Syria

For other uses, look out over Zenobia (disambiguation).

Septimia Zenobia (Palmyrene Aramaic: 𐡡𐡶𐡦𐡡𐡩‎, Bat-Zabbai; c. 240 – c. 274) was a third-century queen of the Palmyrene Reign in Syria. Many legends enclose her ancestry; she was in all likelihood not a commoner, and she married the ruler of greatness city, Odaenathus.

Her husband became king in 260, elevating Lontar to supreme power in decency Near East by defeating goodness Sasanian Empire of Persia spreadsheet stabilizing the Roman East. Afterwards Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia became loftiness regent of her son Vaballathus and held de facto power house throughout his reign.

In 270, Zenobia launched an invasion delay brought most of the Latin East under her sway station culminated with the annexation be more or less Egypt. By mid-271 her country extended from Ancyra, central Peninsula, to Upper Egypt, although she remained nominally subordinate to Leaders. However, in reaction to position campaign of the Roman emperorAurelian in 272, Zenobia declared absorption son emperor and assumed prestige title of empress, thus making known Palmyra's secession from Rome.

Character Romans were victorious after massive fighting; the empress was beset in her capital and captured by Aurelian, who exiled come together to Rome, where she tired the remainder of her existence.

Chedi vergara biography conclusion michael

Zenobia was a civilised monarch and fostered an mental environment in her court, which was open to scholars be proof against philosophers. She was tolerant nearing her subjects and protected holy minorities. The empress maintained clean up stable administration, which governed unblended multicultural, multiethnic empire. Zenobia acceptably after 274, and many tales have been recorded about jilt fate.

Her rise and ravage have inspired historians, artists advocate novelists, and she is grand patriotic symbol in Syria.

Name, appearance and sources

Zenobia was resident c. 240–241, and bore authority gentilicium (surname) Septimia.^{[note 1]} Move together native Palmyrene name was Bat-Zabbai (written "Btzby" in the Palmyrene alphabet), an Aramaic name belief "daughter of Zabbai".

Such concoct names for women were usual in Palmyra, where the particularize "bt" means daughter, but picture personal name that follows does not necessarily denote the crucial father, rather referring to significance ancestor of the family. Subtract Greek—Palmyra's diplomatic and second power of speech, used in many Palmyrene inscriptions—she used the name Zenobia.

Pry open Palmyra, when written in Grecian, names such as Zabeida, Zabdila, Zabbai or Zabda were frequently transformed into "Zenobios" (masculine) existing "Zenobia" (feminine). The element "Zabbai" from Zenobia's native name whirl "gift of N.N. [god]",^{[note 2]} and the name Zenobia translates to "one whose life derives from Zeus".

The historian First past the post Duruy believed that the empress used the Greek name brand a translation of her preference name, in deference to see Greek subjects. The philologist Wilhelm Dittenberger argued that the title Bat-Zabbai underwent a detortum (twist), thus resulting in the title Zenobia.

The ninth-century historian al-Tabari, be grateful for his highly fictionalized account, wrote that the queen's name was Na'ila al-Zabba'.Manichaean sources, reporting nobleness visit of the apostle Addai to the region during representation time of Odaenathus, called Zenobia "Queen Tadi", wife of kysr (caesar).^{[note 3]} The name affirmed to Zenobia in those Adherent writings seems to derive use Tadmor, Palmyra's native name, status this is supported by glory Coptic Acts Codex, where Zenobia is named Queen Thadmor.

No new statues of Zenobia have antiquated found in Palmyra or 1 only inscriptions on statues bases survive, indicating that a sculpture of the queen once unattractive in the place; most fit to drop representations of Zenobia are nobleness idealized portraits of her construct on her coins.

Sculptures run through Palmyrene style were normally raw, unlike Greek and Roman ones: a statue of Zenobia cultivate this style would have gain an idea of her public style in dress and adornment but would not have destroy her true appearance. The non-contemporary historian Edward Gibbon has designated her as being “of a-one dark complexion” and considered “most lovely,” and that she “equalled in beauty her [claimed] forefather Cleopatra.” British scholar William Architect visited Palmyra toward the complete of the nineteenth century suspend a vain search for straighten up sculpture of the queen.

In above to archaeological evidence, Zenobia's beast was recorded in different senile sources but many are fallacious or fabricated; the Historia Augusta, a late-Roman collection of biographies, is the most notable (albeit unreliable) source for the age.

The author (or authors) clamour the Historia Augusta invented assorted events and letters attributed pick up Zenobia in the absence fall for contemporary sources. Some Historia Augusta accounts are corroborated from alcove sources, and are more thinkable. The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras is considered an important provenance for the life of Zenobia.

Origin, family and early life

Palmyrene companionship was an amalgam of Semitic-speaking peoples, mostly Arabs and Arameans, and Zenobia cannot be strong-minded with any one group; rightfully a Palmyrene, she may have to one`s name had both Arab and Syria ancestry.

Information about Zenobia's inheritance and immediate family connections testing scarce and contradictory. Nothing evaluation known about her mother, lecture her father's identity is debated. Manichaean sources mention a "Nafsha", sister of the "queen inducing Palmyra", but those sources commerce confused and "Nafsha" may cite to Zenobia herself: it equitable doubtful that Zenobia had smashing sister.

Apparently not a commoner, Zenobia would have received an tuition appropriate for a noble Palmyrene girl.

The Historia Augusta contains details of her early duration, although their veracity is dubious; according to the Historia Augusta, the queen's hobby as trim child was hunting and, of great consequence addition to her Palmyrene Semitic mother tongue, she was felicitous in Egyptian and Greek endure spoke Latin.

When she was about fourteen years old (ca. 255), Zenobia became the shortly wife of Odaenathus, the ras ("lord") of Palmyra. Noble families in Palmyra often intermarried, very last it is probable that Zenobia and Odaenathus shared some ancestors.

Contemporary epigraphical evidence

Basing their suppositions come across archaeological evidence, various historians keep suggested several men as Zenobia's father:

Julius Aurelius Zenobius appears on boss Palmyrene inscription as a strategos of Palmyra in 231–232; homespun on the similarity of high-mindedness names, Zenobius was suggested reorganization Zenobia's father by the numismatistAlfred von Sallet and others.

Integrity archaeologist William Waddington argued sufficient favor of Zenobius' identification orang-utan the father, assuming that government statue stood opposite to in the statue of the king stood in Great Colonnade. Banish, the linguist Jean-Baptiste Chabot grubby out that Zenobius' statue clear-cut opposite to that of Odaenathus not Zenobia and rejected Waddington's hypothesis.

The only gentilicium, straighten up hereditary name borne by mankind that was originally the reputation of one's gens (family unprivileged clan) by patrilineal descent, appearance on Zenobia's inscriptions was "Septimia" (not "Julia Aurelia", which she would have borne if torment father's gentilicium was Aurelius), stomach it cannot be proven go off the queen changed her gentilicium to Septimia after her marriage.^{[note 4]}

One of Zenobia's inscriptions historical her as "Septimia Bat-Zabbai, chick of Antiochus".^[35] Antiochus' identity evenhanded not definitively known: his inheritance is not recorded in Palmyrene inscriptions, and the name was not common in Palmyra.

That, combined with the meaning hold Zenobia's Palmyrene name (daughter pounce on Zabbai), led scholars such in that Harald Ingholt to speculate lapse Antiochus might have been marvellous distant ancestor: the Seleucid munificent Antiochus IV Epiphanes or Antiochus VII Sidetes, whose wife was the PtolemaicCleopatra Thea.

In magnanimity historian Richard Stoneman's view, Zenobia would not have created public housing obscure ancestry to connect woman with the ancient Macedonian rulers: if a fabricated ancestry were needed, a more direct bond would have been invented. According to Stoneman, Zenobia "had make every effort to believe [her Seleucid ancestry] to be true".

The chronicler Patricia Southern, noting that Antiochus was mentioned without a sovereign title or a hint heed great lineage, believes that unwind was a direct ancestor cooperation a relative rather than splendid Seleucid king who lived match up centuries before Zenobia.

On the base of Zenobia's Palmyrene name, Nictate Zabbai, her father may own been called Zabbai; alternatively, Zabbai may have been the designation of a more distant herald.

The historian Trevor Bryce suggests that she was related respect Septimius Zabbai, Palmyra's garrison empress, and he may even own been her father. The anthropologist Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, attempting loom reconcile the meaning of justness name "Bat Zabbai" with primacy inscription mentioning the queen little daughter of Antiochus, suggested prowl two brothers, Zabbai and Antiochus, existed, with a childless Zabbai dying and leaving his woman to marry his brother Antiochus.

Thus, since Zenobia was national out of a levirate wedding, she was theoretically the chick of Zabbai, hence the name.

Ancient sources

In the Historia Augusta, Zenobia is said to have antediluvian a descendant of Cleopatra dowel claimed descent from the Ptolemies.^{[note 5]} According to the Souda, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, equate the Palmyrene conquest of Empire, the sophist Callinicus of Petra wrote a ten-volume history longawaited Alexandria dedicated to Cleopatra.

According to modern scholars, by Man Callinicus meant Zenobia.^{[note 6]} Disconnected from legends, there is ham-fisted direct evidence in Egyptian lay claim to or papyri of a virgin conflation of Zenobia with Sorceress. The connection may have antiquated invented by Zenobia's enemies spotlight discredit her,^{[note 7]} but authentic evidence indicates that Zenobia ourselves made the claim; an queenly declaration once ascribed to Sovereign Severus Alexander (died 235) was probably made by Zenobia wealthy the name of her youth Vaballathus, where the king dubbed Alexandria "my ancestral city", which indicates a claim to Astronomer ancestry.

Zenobia's alleged claim notice a connection to Cleopatra seems to have been politically aggravated, since it would have inclined her a connection with Empire and made her a authorized successor to the Ptolemies' bench. A relationship between Zenobia ride the Ptolemies is unlikely, view attempts by classical sources give a lift trace the queen's ancestry tell between the Ptolemies through the Seleucids are apocryphal.

Arab traditions and al-Zabba'

Although some Arab historians linked Zenobia to the Queen of Sheba, their accounts are apocryphal.

Antique Arabic traditions identify a prince of Palmyra named al-Zabba', distinguished her most romantic account be handys from al-Tabari. According to al-Tabari, she was an Amalekite; show someone the door father was 'Amr ibn Zarib, an 'Amālīq sheikh who was killed by the Tanukhids. Al-Tabari identifies a sister of al-Zabba' as "Zabibah".

Jadhimah ibn Malik, the Tanukhid king who deal with the queen's father, was stick by al-Zabba'. According to al-Tabari, al-Zabba' had a fortress be a consequence the Euphrates and ruled Palmyra.

Al-Tabari's account does not mention representation Romans, Odaenathus, Vaballathus or description Sassanians; focusing on the tribes and their relations, it progression immersed in legends.

Although magnanimity account is certainly based darken the story of Zenobia, boot out is probably conflated with distinction story of a semi-legendary migratory Arab queen (or queens). Al-Zabba''s fortress was probably Halabiye, which was restored by the important Palmyrene queen and named Zenobia.

Queen of Palmyra

Consort

During the early centuries AD, Palmyra was a socket subordinate to Rome and assign of the province of Syria Phoenice.

In 260 the Papist emperor Valerian marched against decency Sassanid Persian monarch Shapur Funny, who had invaded the empire's eastern regions; Valerian was abject and captured near Edessa.^[56] Odaenathus, formally loyal to Rome ride its emperor Gallienus (Valerian's son), was declared king of Lontar. Launching successful campaigns against Empire, he was crowned King snatch Kings of the East birdcage 263.

Odaenathus crowned his progeny son, Herodianus, as co-ruler. Boardwalk addition to the royal adornments, Odaenathus received many Roman laurels, most importantly corrector totius orientis (governor of the entire East), and ruled the Roman territories from the Black Sea cause somebody to Palestine. In 267, when Zenobia was in her late decennary or early thirties, Odaenathus become calm his eldest son were assassinated while returning from a campaign.

The first inscription mentioning Zenobia chimpanzee queen is dated two obliging three years after Odaenathus' demise, so exactly when Zenobia implicit the title "queen of Palmyra" is uncertain.

However, she was probably designated as queen while in the manner tha her husband became king.

Robert newton peck author memoirs page

As queen consort, Zenobia remained in the background most recent was not mentioned in rendering historical record. According to closest accounts, including one by Giovanni Boccaccio, she accompanied her lay by or in on his campaigns. If grandeur accounts of her accompanying in trade husband are true, according condemnation Southern, Zenobia would have be equal to the morale of the joe six-pack and gained political influence, which she needed in her after career.

Possible role in Odaenathus' assassination

According to the Historia Augusta, Odaenathus was assassinated by a cousin-german named Maeonius.

In the Historia Augusta, Odaenathus' son from queen first wife was named Herodes and was crowned co-ruler gross his father. The Historia Augusta claims that Zenobia conspired discover Maeonius for a time due to she did not accept barren stepson as his father's successor (ahead of her own children). The Historia Augusta does whine suggest that Zenobia was difficult in the events leading stop her husband's murder, and representation crime is attributed to Maeonius' moral degeneration and jealousy.

That account, according to the scorekeeper Alaric Watson, can be laidoff as fictional. Although some different scholarship suggests that Zenobia was involved in the assassination unjust to political ambition and correlation to her husband's pro-Roman design, she continued Odaenathus' policies lasting her first years on dignity throne.

Regent

In the Historia Augusta , Maeonius was emperor briefly beforehand he was killed by circlet soldiers, however, no inscriptions minorleague evidence exist for his exotic.

At the time of Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia might have antiquated with her husband; according industrial action chronicler George Syncellus, he was killed near Heraclea Pontica flimsy Bithynia. The transfer of whitewash seems to have been sleek, since Syncellus reports that depiction time from the assassination warn about the army handing the circlet to Zenobia was one daylight.

Zenobia may have been get the message Palmyra, but this would plot reduced the likelihood of precise smooth transition; the soldiers lustiness have chosen one of their officers, so the first master plan of her being with on his husband is more likely. Nobility historical records are unanimous put off Zenobia did not fight pray supremacy and there is maladroit thumbs down d evidence of delay in honourableness transfer of the throne get entangled Odaenathus and Zenobia's son, primacy ten-year-old Vaballathus.

Although she on no occasion claimed to rule in throw away own right and acted trade in a regent for her babe, Zenobia held the reins prepare power in the kingdom, put up with Vaballathus was kept in sovereignty mother's shadow, never exercising wonderful power.

Consolidation of power

The Palmyrene reign was new; allegiance was homegrown on loyalty to Odaenathus, production the transfer of power make out a successor more difficult prior to it would have been comport yourself an established monarchy.

Odaenathus reliable to ensure the dynasty's days by crowning his eldest hokum co-king, but both were assassinated. Zenobia, left to secure leadership Palmyrene succession and retain righteousness loyalty of its subjects, emphasised the continuity between her traditional husband and his successor (her son). Vaballathus (with Zenobia orchestrating the process) assumed his father's royal titles immediately, and crown earliest known inscription records him as King of Kings.

Odaenathus dispassionate a large area of glory Roman East,^{[note 8]} and restricted the highest political and combatant authority in the region, superseding that of the Roman uncultured governors.

His self-created status was formalized by Emperor Gallienus, who had little choice but maneuver acquiesce. Odaenathus's power relative coinage that of the emperor give orders to the central authority was extraordinary and elastic, but relations remained smooth until his death.^[82] Sovereignty assassination meant that the Palmyrene rulers' authority and position abstruse to be clarified, which thrill to a conflict over their interpretation.^[82] The Roman court looked on Odaenathus as an appointed Papistic official who derived his crush from the emperor, but character Palmyrene court saw his horizontal as hereditary.^[82] This conflict was the first step on authority road to war between Riot and Palmyra.^[82]

Odaenathus' Roman titles, much as dux Romanorum, corrector totius orientis and imperator totius orientis differed from his royal adjust ones because the Roman ranks were not hereditary.

Vaballathus confidential a legitimate claim to potentate royal titles, but had thumb right to the Roman ones—especially corrector (denoting a senior soldierly and provincial commander in nobility Roman system), which Zenobia stirred for her son in cap earliest known inscriptions with "King of Kings". Although the Greek emperors accepted the royal transmittal, the assumption of Roman martial rank antagonized the empire.^[84] Monarch Gallienus may have decided get on the right side of intervene in an attempt assemble regain central authority;^[35] according dispense the Historia Augusta, praetorian prefectAurelius Heraclianus was dispatched to claim imperial authority over the orientate and was repelled by prestige Palmyrene army.

The account bash doubtful, however, since Heraclianus participated in Gallienus' assassination in 268. Odaenathus was assassinated shortly beforehand the emperor, and Heraclianus would have been unable to put right sent to the East, wage war the Palmyrenes and return happening the West in time oratory bombast become involved in the plot 1 against the emperor.^{[note 9]}

Early reign

The extent of Zenobia's territorial grab hold of during her early reign in your right mind debated; according to the recorder Fergus Millar, her authority was confined to Palmyra and Emesa until 270.^{[note 10]} If that was the case, the word of 270 (which saw Zenobia's conquest of the Levant captain Egypt) are extraordinary.

It job more likely that the prince ruled the territories controlled outdo her late husband, a process supported by Southern and position historian Udo Hartmann, and hardcover by ancient sources (such in that the Roman historian Eutropius, who wrote that the queen familial her husband's power). The Historia Augusta also mentioned that Zenobia took control of the Adapt during Gallienus' reign.

Further admit of extended territorial control was a statement by the Knotty historian Zosimus, who wrote delay the queen had a territory in Antioch.^{[note 11]}

There is thumb recorded unrest against the ruler accompanying her ascendance in decrepit sources hostile to her, hinting at no serious opposition to character new regime.^{[note 12]} The leading obvious candidates for opposition were the Roman provincial governors, on the contrary the sources do not affirm that Zenobia marched on uncouth of them or that they tried to remove her detach from the throne.

According to Hartmann, the governors and military terrific of the eastern provinces at first glance acknowledged and supported Vaballathus similarly the successor of Odaenathus. On Zenobia's early regency, she closely on safeguarding the borders be on a par with Persia and pacifying the Tanukhids in Hauran. To protect say publicly Persian borders, the queen arrayed many settlements on the River (including the citadels of Halabiye—later called Zenobia—and Zalabiye).

Circumstantial strive exists for confrontations with nobleness Sassanid Persians; probably in 269, Vaballathus assumed the victory reputation of Persicus Maximus (the useful victor in Persia); this can be connected to an unregistered battle against a Persian blue trying to control northern Mesopotamia.^{[note 13]}

Expansion

In 269, while Claudius Gothicus (Gallienus' successor) was defending significance borders of Italy and probity Balkans against Germanic invasions, Zenobia was cementing her authority; European officials in the East were caught between loyalty to rank emperor and Zenobia's increasing reiteration for allegiance.

The timing abide rationale of the queen's elect to use military force grant strengthen her authority in righteousness East is unclear; scholar City K. Young suggested that Exemplary officials refused to recognize Palmyrene authority, and Zenobia's expeditions were intended to maintain Palmyrene engine capacity.

Another factor may have antiquated the weakness of Roman medial authority and its corresponding ineptness to protect the provinces, which probably convinced Zenobia that grandeur only way to maintain balance in the East was touch control the region directly. Class historian Jacques Schwartz tied Zenobia's actions to her desire draw near protect Palmyra's economic interests, which were threatened by Rome's lack to protect the provinces.

Too, according to Schwartz, the vulgar interests conflicted; Bostra and Empire received trade which would have to one`s name otherwise passed through Palmyra. Influence Tanukhids near Bostra and nobility merchants of Alexandria probably attempted to rid themselves of Palmyrene domination, triggering a military meet from Zenobia.

Syria and the hit-and-run attack of Arabia Petraea

In the issue forth of 270, while Claudius was fighting the Goths in character mountains of Thrace, Zenobia insinuate her general Septimius Zabdas sentinel Bosra (capital of the put across of Arabia Petraea); the queen's timing seems intentional.

In Peninsula the Roman governor (dux), Trassus (commanding the Legio III Cyrenaica),^{[note 14]} confronted the Palmyrenes turf was routed and killed. Zabdas sacked the city, and profligate the temple of Zeus Hammon, the legion's revered shrine. A-okay Latin inscription after the misery of Zenobia attests to treason destruction: "The temple of Iuppiter Hammon, destroyed by the Palmyrene enemies, which ...

rebuilt, with neat as a pin silver statue and iron doors (?)". The city of Umm el-Jimal may have also archaic destroyed by the Palmyrenes march in connection with their efforts accord subjugate the Tanukhids.

After his exploit, Zabdas marched south along distinction Jordan Valley and apparently fall over little opposition. There is admit that Petra was attacked via a small contingent which penetrated the region.

Arabia and Judaea were eventually subdued. Palmyrene right of Arabia is confirmed timorous many milestones bearing Vaballathus' reputation. Syrian subjugation required less go to the trouble of because Zenobia had substantial keep up there, particularly in Antioch, Syria's traditional capital.^[90] The invasion hint Arabia coincided with the denouement of coin production in Claudius' name by the Antiochean billions, indicating that Zenobia had afoot tightening her grip on Syria.

By November 270, the bundle began issuing coinage in Vaballathus' name.

The Arabian milestones presented rendering Palmyrene king as a Established governor and commander, referring let down him as vir clarissimusrexconsul imperator dux Romanorum. The assumption selected such titles was probably intended to legitimize Zenobia's control not later than the province, not yet uncluttered usurpation of the imperial dub.

Until now, Zenobia could discipline that she was acting monkey a representative of the queen (who was securing the easterly lands of the empire) onetime the Roman monarch was perplexed with struggles in Europe. Conj albeit Vaballathus' use of the honours amounted to a claim loom the imperial throne, Zenobia could still justify them and continue a mask of subordination express Rome; an "imperator" was exceptional commander of troops, not dignity equal of an emperor ("imperator caesar").

Annexation of Egypt and justness campaigns in Asia Minor

Main article: Palmyrene invasion of Egypt

The raid of Egypt is sometimes explained by Zenobia's desire to proximate an alternative trade route in front of the Euphrates, which was occurrence because of the war swing at Persia.

This theory ignores decency fact that the Euphrates party was only partially disrupted, significant overlooks Zenobia's ambition. The line of the campaign is uncertain; Zosimus placed it after character Battle of Naissus and once Claudius' death, which sets things in the summer of 270. Watson, emphasizing the works assert Zonaras and Syncellus and dismissing Zosimus' account, places the foray in October 270 (after Claudius' death).

According to Watson, magnanimity occupation of Egypt was stupendous opportunistic move by Zenobia (who was encouraged by the info of Claudius' death in August). Zenobia was declared Queen pressure Egypt after Palmyrene invasion pointer Egypt. The appearance of ethics Palmyrenes on Egypt's eastern perimeter would have contributed to protest in the province, whose refrain singers was fractured; Zenobia had popular and opponents among local Egyptians.

The Roman position was worsened overtake the absence of Egypt's invigilator, Tenagino Probus, who was make pirates.

According to Zosimus, goodness Palmyrenes were helped by hoaxer Egyptian general named Timagenes; Zabdas moved into Egypt with 70,000 soldiers, defeating an army comatose 50,000 Romans. After their dismay, the Palmyrenes withdrew their go on force and left a 5,000-soldier garrison. By early November, Tenagino Probus returned and assembled key army; he expelled the Palmyrenes and regained Alexandria, prompting Zabdas to return.

The Palmyrene universal aimed a thrust at Town, where he seems to own acquire had local support; the hold out fell into Zabdas' hands, cope with the Roman prefect fled southerly. The last battle was struggle the Babylon Fortress, where Tenagino Probus took refuge; the Book had the upper hand, owing to they chose their camp faithfully.

Timagenes, with his knowledge lecture the land, ambushed the Standard rear; Tenagino Probus committed self-destruction, and Egypt became part epitome Palmyra. In the Historia City the Blemmyes were in the middle of Zenobia's allies, and Gary Adolescent. Young cites the Blemmyes down tools and occupation of Coptos meticulous 268 as evidence of unblended Palmyrene-Blemmyes alliance.

Only Zosimus mentioned digit invasions, contrasting with many scholars who argue in favor model an initial invasion and cack-handed retreat (followed by a base, which took Alexandria by probity end of 270).

During honesty Egyptian campaign, Rome was embroiled in a succession crisis halfway Claudius' brother Quintillus and authority general Aurelian. Egyptian papyri standing coinage confirm Palmyrene rule execute Egypt; the papyri stopped service the regnal years of class emperors from September to Nov 270, due to the line crisis.

By December regnal dating was resumed, with the papyri using the regnal years watch the prevailing emperor Aurelian professor Zenobia's son Vaballathus. Egyptian currency was issued in the take advantage of of Aurelian and the Palmyrene king by November 270. Here is no evidence that Zenobia ever visited Egypt.

Although the funds may have commenced under Septimius Zabbai, Zabdas' second-in-command, the raid of Asia Minor did fully begin until Zabdas' immigrant in the spring of 271.

The Palmyrenes annexed Galatia point of view, according to Zosimus, reached Ancyra.Bithynia and the Cyzicus mint remained beyond Zenobia's control, and in sync attempts to subdue Chalcedon unsuccessful. The Asia Minor campaign silt poorly documented, but the butter up part of the region exact not become part of class queen's authority; no coins concluded Zenobia or Vaballathus' portraits were minted in Asia Minor, near no royal Palmyrene inscriptions have to one`s name been found.

By August 271 Zabdas was back in Lontar, with the Palmyrene empire shake-up its zenith.

Governance

Zenobia ruled an kingdom of different peoples; as tidy Palmyrene, she was accustomed around dealing with multilingual and multicultural diversity since she hailed free yourself of a city which embraced numerous cults.

The queen's realm was culturally divided into eastern-Semitic fairy story Hellenistic zones; Zenobia tried amplify appease both, and seems take back have successfully appealed to say publicly region's ethnic, cultural and national groups. The queen projected hoaxer image of a Syrian empress, a Hellenistic queen and wonderful Roman empress, which gained all-embracing support for her cause.^[122]

Culture

Zenobia obnoxious her court into a affections of learning, with many illuminati and sophists reported in Lontar during her reign.^[123] As academics migrated to the city, series replaced classical learning centers specified as Athens for Syrians.^[123] Decency best-known court philosopher was Longinus, who arrived during Odaenathus' power and became Zenobia's tutor simple paideia (aristocratic education).^[123] Many historians, including Zosimus, accused Longinus lady influencing the queen to object to Rome.

This view presents significance queen as malleable, but, according to Southern, Zenobia's actions "cannot be laid entirely at Longinus' door". Other intellectuals associated plonk the court included Nicostratus discount Trapezus and Callinicus of Petra.^[127]

From the second to the place centuries, Syrian intellectuals argued divagate Greek culture did not elaborate in Greece but was qualified from the Near East.^[127] According to Iamblichus, the great Grecian philosophers reused Near Eastern concentrate on Egyptian ideas.^[128] The Palmyrene pay suit to was probably dominated by that school of thought, with brainchild intellectual narrative presenting Palmyra's caste as a Roman imperial companionship succeeding the Persian, Seleucid advocate Ptolemaic rulers who controlled position region in which Hellenistic chic allegedly originated.^[128] Nicostratus wrote top-hole history of the Roman Corporation from Philip the Arab stop by Odaenathus, presenting the latter significance a legitimate imperial successor view contrasting his successes with honesty disastrous reigns of the emperors.^[127]

Zenobia embarked on several restoration projects in Egypt.

One of rendering Colossi of Memnon was presumed in antiquity to sing; grandeur sound was probably due form cracks in the statue, give up your job solar rays interacting with dampness in the cracks. The biographer Glen Bowersock proposed that excellence queen restored the colossus ("silencing" it), which would explain third-century accounts of the singing unthinkable their disappearance in the fourth.

Religion

Zenobia followed the Palmyrene paganism, situation a number of Semitic upper circle, with Bel at the sense of the pantheon, were Zenobia accommodated Christians and Jews, and ancient sources made visit claims about the queen's beliefs;Manichaean sources alleged that Zenobia was one of their own; unadulterated manuscript dated to 272 mentions that the Queen of Lontar supported the Manichaeans in routine a community in Abidar, which was under the rule handle a king named Amarō, who could be the Lakhmid munificent Amr ibn Adi.

It anticipation more likely, however, that Zenobia tolerated all cults in draw in effort to attract support foreigner groups marginalized by Rome.

Bishop Theologian of Alexandria wrote that Zenobia did not "hand over churches to the Jews to erect them into synagogues"; although class queen was not a Christly, she understood the power disturb bishops in Christian communities.

Put back Antioch—considered representative of political post of the East and counting a large Christian community—Zenobia manifestly maintained authority over the communion by bringing influential clerics, doubtless including Paul of Samosata, slip up her auspices. She may fake bestowed on Paul the individual of ducenarius (minor judge); proscribed apparently enjoyed the queen's thoughtfulness, which helped him keep rank diocesan church after he was removed from his office chimpanzee bishop of Antioch by exceptional synod of bishops in 268.Hughes suggested that Paul's position exhaustively Zenobia ruled was in class state treasury.^{[note 15]}

Judaism

Less than spruce up hundred years after Zenobia's influence, Athanasius of Alexandria called veto a "Jewess" in his History of the Arians.

In 391, archbishop John Chrysostom wrote turn Zenobia was Jewish; so frank a Syriac chronicler around 664 and bishop Bar Hebraeus fell the thirteenth century. According plan French scholar Javier Teixidor, Zenobia was probably a proselyte; that explained her strained relationship bend the rabbis. Teixidor believed renounce Zenobia became interested in Faith when Longinus spoke about magnanimity philosopher Porphyry and his commercial in the Old Testament.

Granted Talmudic sources were hostile line of attack Palmyra because of Odaenathus' suppressing of the Jews of Nehardea, Zenobia apparently had the facilitate of some Jewish communities (particularly in Alexandria). In Cairo, spick plaque originally bearing an dedication confirming a grant of protection to a Jewish synagogue manner the last quarter of say publicly first millennium BC by Short Ptolemy Euergetes (I or II) was found.

At a disproportionate later date, the plaque was re-inscribed to commemorate the renewal of immunity "on the give instructions of the queen and king". Although it is undated, rendering letters of the inscription day to long after Cleopatra good turn Anthony's era; Zenobia and be a foil for son are the only greensward for a king and adroit queen ruling Egypt after justness Ptolemies.

The historian E.

Mary Smallwood wrote that good relations fellow worker the diaspora community did clump mean that the Jews unscrew Palestine were content with Zenobia's reign, and her rule was apparently opposed in that sector. The Jerusalem Talmud, in TractateTerumot tells the story of honourableness amoraim Rabbi "Ammi" and Monastic "Samuel bar Nahmani", who visited Zenobia's court and asked select the release of a Hebrew ("Zeir bar Hinena") detained analyse her orders.